Introduction

The EPME is the largest known extinction event in Earth’s history, an estimated loss of 95% of marine species and 70% of land species (Ross, C. et al 2025), changing the ecology and life on Earth forever. Climates in the Late-Permian were distinct with characteristic ecology and high endemism. Plant fossil records from this time are sparse and often poorly preserved but specific localities can shed light onto the flora before, during and after the EPME. Climate and Geology of the Middle-Late Permian. In the Late Permian, Earths landmasses consisted of supercontinent Pangea, with small island Cathaysia to the East. Pangea, like other large continental masses had distinct climatic zones with characteristic ecology. Overall climatic conditions trend from hot, dry deserts at the low-latitudes (Bernardi, M. et al. 2017), to boreal climates with seasonal conditions at higher latitudes with drier climates with semi-arid conditions and seasonal rainfall at mid-high latitudes (Kerp, H. 2000) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Middle-late Permian climatic regions. (Bernardi, M. 2017)

Late-Permian Flora

Late-Permian flora showed high endemism due to the distinct climatic regions, with the changing climates serving as barriers. Species adapted to specific climates such as pteridosperm seed plants and ginkgophytes flourished and were densely populated within their province. Whereas more diverse species such as glossopterids, ferns and tree-ferns (tree-ferns were not present in Cathaysia (Wang, J. et al. 2012)) had a cosmopolitan population. Dominating Gondwana and favouring the dry-desert climate (of low-latitudes), glossopterids, sphenophytes, ferns and calamites (Mcloughlin, S. 2012). These dry conditions favoured gymnosperms and peltasperms, those that have seeds enclosed in protective covers and modern trees like conifers, gingkoes and cycads. At mid-latitudes the tropical, humid climate is characterised by an abundance of sphenophytes, ferns and pteridosperm seed plants (Kustatscher, E. et al. 2014). The temperate-seasonal regions were dominated by conifers, ginkgophytes and ferns.

EPME

Large scale volcanism (believed to be the primary EPME cause) in modern-day Siberia caused major atmospheric changes such as: ash fall out reflecting solar radiation (preventing photosynthesis), changing atmospheric circulation patterns, global cooling, and acid rain (Benton, M. 2003).

Fig. 2 Reconstruction of the EPME event, highlighting extreme temperatures and deforestation (Jones, R. Online Image)

These impacts were widespread across Pangea and caused extreme weather and climatic events such as: powerful hurricanes that hit Cathaysia (Modern day China) (Ji, K. et al. 2021), rapid deforestation (Aftabuzzaman, Md. et al. 2021), several rapid temperature changes and marine anoxic events (Li, H. et al. 2022). The accumulation of all these events over the 15 million years in which the extinction event occurred resulted in an estimated loss of 95% of marine species and 70% of land species (Ross, C. et al 2025).

Early Triassic Flora

The end-Permian extinction was followed by ‘complete plant devastation’ (Aftabuzzaman, Md. et al. 2021) with many plants disappearing completely during this time. Glossopteris populations and their change over EPME was best recorded. Populations are observed to be very abundant throughout Gondwana at the late-Permian, then collapsed completely in certain regions, surviving into the Triassic period from small, isolated populations (Gastaldo, R. 2019).

China

In modern day Northern China, the EPME was caused by increasing desertification, which wiped out up to 75% of the land flora at the genera level, and 98% at the species level (Zi-qiang, W.1996). Reconstructions of early Triassic life show desert arid climates with small wetland oases. Less than 5 million years into the Triassic, oasis regions had growing populations of lycopsid Pleuromeia (also found in Europe) (Grauvogel-Stamm, L. et al. 2005), these species appeared 3-10 times taller in these oases than before the EPME. Their in-situ preservation tells us their populations were dense and had strong associations with ferns and sphenopsids. The cosmopolitan population of these lycopsids all over Eurasia is considered the most distinctive feature of the Early Triassic.

Fig. 3 Reconstruction of oases environments within desert like regions of North China (Sun, J. Online Image)

Europe

Similar to Northern China, ferns and lycopsid Pleuromeia populations are found in the Early Triassic fossil localities. A fern commonly found is Anomopteris, whose appearance shows the pinnae reduced in size by more than half (compared to Late-Permian specimens from same region) (Grauvogel-Stamm, L. et al. 2005).

Fig. 4 Early Triassic paleo-climate reconstruction, showing dense monotonous populations (Leshyk, V. Online Image)

Conifer-dominated environments are found to have succeeded the Pleuromeia flora, which is also seen in Northeastern France fossil localities. These environments are closely related to Late Permian flora, being more diverse and richer. This region also has the appearance of Sphenopsids, Equisetites, Anomopteris, Gynophytes (Dabruskina, I.A. 1987).

Flora Safe Haven

It’s a widely held belief that restoring a terrestrial ecosystem to functional diversity would take millions of years (Peng, H. 2025). The reason ecosystems are believed to take millions of years to recover is that organisms need to evolve and diversify to fill the new ecological niches, which takes a high number of generations. Despite this being the widely held belief, recent evidence shows specific regions having thriving ecosystems just 75,000 years into the Triassic.

Fig. 5 Reconstruction during, before and after the EPME based on fossil and sedimentological data from Cathaysia (modern day China). (Yang, D. Online Image)

Recent fossils have been discovered in what was Cathaysia. Calamitaleans and tree trunks, that are relative of modern-day conifers, are the most abundant fossils found in this locality (Peng, H. 2025). This site lacks evidence of drought and rainfall like other sites, suggesting the region served as a refuge for the iconic Mesozoic flora that emerged in the late-Permian (Peng, H. 2025).

Discussion

The impact of the EPME was vast and detrimental to all spheres of life. All regions within the supercontinent Pangea had flora and fauna wiped out almost entirely, experiencing extreme weather systems and conditions as well as sudden temperature changes, making ecosystems fragile and likely to collapse further.

Once climates settled in the Early Triassic, conditions were dry, desert-like and arid. These environments were dominated by opportunistic organisms that could adapt quickly, such as Pleuromeia whose specimens are found to densely populate areas of Northern China and areas within Europe. After time, species that survived, had time and a stable climate to specialise letting them outcompete organisms such as Pleuromeia, creating the rich, diverse environments similar to late-Permian ecosystems but forever changed. Looking into the future, these observations can be used in modelling for wide-scale global warming and climate change helping us predict (and hopefully prevent) the changes likely to come.

Species Glossary

Note: this glossary provides short summaries of species needed for context in the blog, it is not comprehensive.

Glossopterids: Woody gymnosperms with seeds and large broad leaves arranged similarly to modern trees

Sphenophytes/ Sphenopsids: Vascular plants with ribbed and jointed stems, Equisetum (horsetails) are the only living representative

Ferns: Fronds and leaves like modern day ferns, some could climb with vines and others formed bush-like shrubs. Others were tall with a thick tree-like trunk and branching fern fronds at the top.

Lycophytes/ Lycopsids: Vascular plants including clubmosses, in this context typically referring to large ‘scale’ trees such as lepidodendron, growing to 40metres tall with thick trunks, large rooting systems and long thin leaves.

Cordaitaleans: Order of gymnosperms, with long flat leaves, cone like reproductive structures and visually like modern day conifers.

Calamites/ Calamitaleans: Tall bamboo like trunks, with thin long leaves, extinct relatives of modern-day horsetails (within Sphenophytes/ Sphenopsids)

Pleuromeia: Extinct genus of lycophytes, with a single unbranched stem with large lobed leaves from the stem

Pteridosperm: Extinct seed producing plants with fern like fronds

Ginkgophytes/ Ginkgoes: within gymnosperms, have Ginkgo-like leaves

Equisetites: Extinct genus of vascular plants, spore rather than seed producing

Anomopteris: ‘fan’ fern

Gymnosperms: Plants that contain those with unprotected seeds (including conifers, cycads and ginkgoes)

Peltasperms: Extinct order of seed plants/ seed ferns with fern-like leaf fronds

Cycads: Woody seed plants, with unbranched trunk with an evergreen large top where leaves come from

Pteridosperm: Extinct group of seed producing plants

Conifers: Within gymnosperms, group of seed plants, evergreen trees that branch from the central trunk regularly, almost all are woody with secondary growth

References

Aftabuzzaman, Md. Et al (2021) End-Permian terrestrial disturbance followed by the complete plant devastation, and the vegetation proto-recovery in the earliest-Triassic recorded in coastal sea sediments. Benton, M. (2003) When Life Nearly Died: The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time. Bernardi, M. et al (2017) Late Permian (Lopingian) terrestrial ecosystems: A global comparison with new data from the low-latitude Bletterbach Biota. Earth-Science Reviews. Vol 175. Pp 18-43. (Accessed 23 Oct 25) Dabruskina, I.A. (1987) Phytogeography of Eurasia during the early Triassic. Gastaldo, R. (2019) Ancient plants escaped the end-Permian mass extinction. Grauvogel-Stamm, L. et al (2005) Recovery of the Triassic land flora from the end Permian life crisis. Ji, K. et al. (2021) Unusual intraclast conglomerates in a stormy, hot-house lake: The Early Triassic North China Basin. Jones, R. (Online Image) Kerp, H (2000) The modernization of landscapes during the Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic. Kustatscher, E. et al. (2014) Sphenophytes, pteridosperms and possible cycads from the Wuchiapingian (Lopingian, Permian) of Bletterbach (Dolomites, Northern Italy). Leshyk, V. (Online Image) Victor O Leshyk. Li, H. et al (2022) Integrated conodont biostratigraphy and δ13Ccarb records from end Permian to Early Triassic at Yiwagou Section, Gansu Province, northwestern China and their implications. Mcloughlin, S. (2012) Glossopteris - insights into the architecture and relationships of an iconic Permian Gondwanan plant. Peng, H. (2025) Refugium amidst ruins: Unearthing the lost flora that escaped the end-Permian mass extinction. Ross, C. et al (2025) Paleoclimate, Permian Environment. Sun, J. (Online Image) Wang, J (2012) Permian vegetational Pompeii from Inner Mongolia and its implications for landscape paleoecology and paleobiogeography of Cathaysia. Yang, D. (Online Image) Refugium amidst ruins: Unearthing the lost flora that escaped the end-Permian mass extinction. Zi-qiang, W (1996) Recovery of vegetation from the terminal Permian mass extinction in North China.

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